][]

Review

Technological and operational strategies of the Colombian

Navy against IUU ﬁshing: maritime surveillance systems

and comparison with international models (2005–2024)

Estrategias tecnológicas y operacionales de la Armada de

Colombia contra la pesca INDNR: sistemas de vigilancia

marítima y comparación con modelos internacionales

(2005–2024)

Andrés Umaña Reyes ^1∗, Rossny Carranza Torres ²

and Astrid Calderón Hernández ³

1

Dirección General Marítima, Bogotá, 111061, Colombia; andres.umana@armada.mil.co

2

3

Centro de Investigaciones Oceanograﬁcas e Hidrograﬁcas del Caribe, Cartagena, 111321, Colombia; rossny.carranza@armada.mil.co

Faculty of Naval Sciences, Escuela Naval de Cadetes "Almirante Padilla", Cartagena, 130001, Colombia; astrid.calderon@enap.edu.co

∗

Correspondence: andres.umana@armada.mil.co

Citation: Umaña, A.; Carranza, R.; Calderón, A. Technological and operational strategies of the Colombian Navy against IUU ﬁshing:

maritime surveillance systems and comparison with international models (2005–2024). OnBoard Knowledge Journal 2026, 2, 4.

https://doi.org/10.70554/OBJK2026.v02n01.04

Received: 01/05/2025, Accepted: 13/06/2025, Published: 24/03/2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/OBK2010004

Abstract: Illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) ﬁshing poses a major threat to marine biodiversity, ﬁsheries

sustainability, and the economic stability of coastal states such as Colombia. In this context, maritime surveillance and

control technologies have become critical tools for improving detection, monitoring, and operational response. This

literature review analyzes the technological and operational strategies used by the Colombian Navy to combat IUU

ﬁshing between 2005 and 2024, with special emphasis on surveillance systems, information integration, and decision-

support capacities. A systematic and structured review was conducted using academic databases, ofﬁcial documents,

international regulations, and technical reports. The analysis examines the use and applicability of tools such as satellite

monitoring, Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS), Automatic Identiﬁcation Systems (AIS), and artiﬁcial intelligence-based

platforms, and compares the Colombian case with international models including THEMIS and SKYLIGHT. The results

show progress in maritime control and ﬁsheries surveillance; however, technological gaps, limited interoperability,

logistical constraints, and inter-institutional coordination challenges continue to affect enforcement effectiveness. The

study concludes that strengthening technological infrastructure, data integration, and intelligent maritime monitoring

systems can improve operational decision-making and enhance Colombia’s capacity to prevent and respond to IUU

ﬁshing.

Keywords: IUU ﬁshing; Maritime surveillance systems; Satellite monitoring; AIS; VMS; Artiﬁcial intelligence; Decision-

support systems; Fisheries control technologies

OnBoard Knowledge Journal 2026, 2, 4.

https://revistasescuelanaval.com/obk/

Licensed by Escuela Naval de Cadetes "Almirante Padilla", COL.

This article is freely accessible and distributed under the terms and conditions

of Creative Commons Attribution (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

OnBoard Knowledge Journal 2026, 2, 4

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Resumen: La pesca ilegal, no declarada y no reglamentada (INDNR) representa una amenaza signiﬁcativa para la

biodiversidad marina, la sostenibilidad pesquera y la estabilidad económica de países costeros como Colombia. En

este contexto, las tecnologías de vigilancia y control marítimo se han convertido en herramientas críticas para mejorar

la detección, el monitoreo y la capacidad de respuesta operacional. Esta revisión de literatura analiza las estrategias

tecnológicas y operacionales empleadas por la Armada de Colombia para combatir la pesca INDNR entre 2005 y

2024, con énfasis en los sistemas de vigilancia, la integración de información y las capacidades de apoyo a la toma

de decisiones. Se realizó una revisión sistemática y estructurada a partir de bases de datos académicas, documentos

oﬁciales, normativas internacionales e informes técnicos. El análisis examina el uso y la aplicabilidad de herramientas

como el monitoreo satelital, el Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), el Automatic Identiﬁcation System (AIS) y plataformas

basadas en inteligencia artiﬁcial, y compara el caso colombiano con modelos internacionales como THEMIS y SKYLIGHT.

Los resultados evidencian avances en el control marítimo y en la vigilancia pesquera; sin embargo, persisten brechas

tecnológicas, limitaciones de interoperabilidad, restricciones logísticas y desafíos de coordinación interinstitucional

que afectan la efectividad del control. El estudio concluye que el fortalecimiento de la infraestructura tecnológica, la

integración de datos y los sistemas inteligentes de monitoreo marítimo puede mejorar la toma de decisiones operacionales

y aumentar la capacidad de Colombia para prevenir y responder frente a la pesca INDNR.

Palabras clave: Pesca INDNR; Sistemas de vigilancia marítima; Monitoreo satelital; AIS; VMS; Inteligencia artiﬁcial;

Sistemas de apoyo a la decisión; Tecnologías para el control pesquero

1. Introduction

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [

illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) ﬁshing include:

8], the main categories of

i.

Illegal ﬁshing: activities conducted by national or foreign vessels in waters under the jurisdiction of a

State, without the required authorization or in violation of national laws.

Unreported ﬁshing: operations where vessels fail to report or misreport their catches, in breach of

national regulations.

Unregulated ﬁshing: ﬁshing activities carried out by stateless vessels or those ﬂying the ﬂag of a State

not party to regional ﬁsheries management organizations, thus violating established conservation

measures.

ii.

iii.

iv.

Fishing in areas without applicable regulations: activities in regions lacking explicit conservation

rules, without fulﬁlling the State’s responsibility for marine resource protection.

IUU ﬁshing poses a serious threat to marine biodiversity by contributing to the over exploitation of

species, destruction of sensitive habitats, and disruption of ecological balance. It undermines the sustainability

of legal ﬁsheries, endangers food security, and causes signiﬁcant economic losses for coastal States [ ]. In

Colombia, this problem is compounded by the vast extent of its jurisdictional waters—covering 48.86% of the

national territory [ ] and the persistent activity of illegal ﬁshing ﬂeets, both domestic and foreign. In response,

7

9

the Colombian Navy has played a pivotal role in maritime surveillance and control through patrol operations,

satellite monitoring, and international cooperation [28]. However, there remains a gap in systematically

assessing the actual effectiveness of these strategies, making it difﬁcult to determine their concrete impact on

environmental preservation and economic development.

This review aims to address the following research question: What technological and operational mar-

itime surveillance strategies have been used by the Colombian Navy between 2005 and 2024 to combat IUU

ﬁshing, and to what extent can their strengthening and integration with international models improve detec-

tion, monitoring, and decision-making? Based on this question, the review seeks to analyze the technological

and operational capacities of the Colombian Navy, identify gaps and challenges in surveillance and control,

and assess opportunities for improving institutional response through the integration of maritime monitoring

systems and decision-support tools. This analysis is important for strengthening marine conservation policy,

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improving ﬁsheries control, and enhancing the protection of Colombia’s marine resources through more

effective and technologically supported enforcement strategies.

Colombia must address this issue in ecologically and economically important areas like the Seaﬂower

Biosphere Reserve of the San Andrés archipelago and the Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary in the Paciﬁc

[9]. These include diverse biodiversity but are at risk from IUU ﬁshing. Likewise, the detection and control of

these illicit acts have several operational challenges including logistics, whether the Navy has surveillance

technologies, and coordination with ﬁsheries and marine security authorities.

Additionally, obligations under international instruments, such as the FAO Port State Measures Agree-

ment, obligate Colombia to augment its inspection and enforcement capacities. Representative cases, such

as dynamite ﬁshing off Santa Marta [19], the illegal capture of parrotﬁsh [2;30], the presence of industrial

vessels in protected areas [ ], and shark ﬁnning [18], illustrate the scope and seriousness of the issue and the

4

need for prompt, dynamic, and comprehensive responses.

The article consists of several sections. Section 1 introduces the problem of Illegal, Unreported and

Unregulated (IUU) Fishing, the importance of the issue for Colombia, and the mission of the Colombian

Navy regarding IUU Fishing. Section 2 sets out the Contributions of the research, explaining the overall plan

which includes full coverage of the operational impact of the Colombian Navy, describing the interventions,

promoting changes in technology, and proposing comparisons with international monitors and models.

Section 3 describes the approach taken to gather and analyse the data. It describes how the sources and

databases were selected, the criteria that determined the validity of the information, and the methods used to

analyze the qualitative data. Section 4 provides the main discussion about the Colombian Navy’s operational

impact against IUU ﬁshing, the Colombian Navy’s technological capabilities, the legal frameworks to which

the Navy holds itself accountable, and the coordination between institutions in Colombia and Internationally.

Section 4.1 looks at the operational impact of the Colombian Navy ﬁghting IUU ﬁshing. Section 4.2 looks

at the Colombian Navy’s strategies and technological capabilities in the ﬁght against IUU ﬁshing through

surveillance and control. Section 4.3 allows a comparison of the Colombian Navy’s strategies to International

Monitoring and Control models, and whether these models can be applied in a Colombian context. Section

4.4 explains the challenges and opportunities to strengthen the current strategy, identifying main challenges

providing suggestions for overcoming them. Section 4.5 offers Proposals to Optimize the Navy’s Response,

including ideas for enhancing the efﬁciency and effectiveness of the Colombian Navy to combat IUU ﬁshing.

Section 5 sets out the Conclusions and reviews the main ﬁndings, and then recommends strategies to develop

the Colombian Navy’s role in addressing IUU ﬁshing and proposes possible paths for Future Work, and the

need for further research related to maritime security and ﬁsheries management.

2. Contributions

The study also gives an in-depth analysis of the Colombian Navy’s strategies and capabilities in terms

of the illegal, unreported and unregulated ﬁshing (IUU) from 2005-2024. The contributions of this research to

the existing literature are multiple:

i.

Unlike the previous efforts that traditionally focused on individual operational or technological

components of the marine environment, this study systematically analyzed the Colombian Navy

strategies, operations, and challenges for IUU ﬁshing; evaluated the implications of these strategies

in terms of effective protection of the marine environment and development of the economy, and

presents an analysis of the complexity of impact.

ii.

The study not only reﬂects particularly the Colombian case but also tries to make a comparison with

international models and systems of control and monitoring of ﬁsheries. The use of international

models and best practices, such as those in France, Panama, and Ecuador, can assist to suggest ways

in which new opportunities can be integrated into the Colombian context and provide suggestions

for a valuable recruitment of international experiences to inform global maritime security and IUU

ﬁshing management.

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iii.

iv.

The work considers some of the most valuable technologies that have been incorporated into the

colombian navy’s ﬁght against IUU, notably satellite platforms and technological integration (like

AI), and real-time data application monitoring systems.

The article provides practical policy recommendations to strengthen inter-institutional and interna-

tional coordination in the ﬁght against IUU ﬁshing. It also emphasizes the importance of improving

legal frameworks and enforcement measures, which are often neglected in existing literature. This

work proposes the creation of more robust protocols for coordination between national and interna-

tional agencies, aiming to enhance operational response and enforcement.

v.

The study also identiﬁes critical limitations in current operations, such as logistical constraints,

technological gaps, and coordination challenges. In doing so, it offers strategic opportunities for

institutional strengthening, suggesting pathways for optimizing resource allocation and improving

the efﬁciency of patrols and surveillance operations.

By addressing both operational and technological dimensions of IUU ﬁshing management, this research

advances knowledge on maritime surveillance technologies, monitoring systems, and decision-support tools

for ﬁsheries control.

3. Methodology

This review was conducted through a systematic and structured analysis of academic and technical

literature published between 2005 and 2024. Its purpose was to analyze the technological and operational

capacities of the Colombian Navy for the surveillance, monitoring, and control of illegal, unreported, and

unregulated (IUU) ﬁshing, through a comparison with internationally applicable maritime monitoring

models. The review aimed to identify technological gaps, opportunities for integration, and potential

improvements in decision-making and institutional response.

3.1. Types of sources and selection criteria

The review included ofﬁcial documents, national and international regulations, peer-reviewed scientiﬁc

articles, postgraduate theses, and reports from specialized organizations in marine conservation and maritime

security. Journalistic sources, outreach publications, and institutional documents directly produced by the

Colombian Navy were excluded to avoid bias and ensure a critical and independent approach.

The consulted entities were grouped as follows:

1.

National, including the National Authority for Aquaculture and Fisheries (AUNAP), the Colombian

Ocean Commission (CCO), and the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development.

International, including the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), regional

ﬁsheries management organizations, and environmental agencies from Latin America, Europe, and

Asia that have developed successful strategies against IUU ﬁshing.

2.

3.2. Databases and search strategy

Searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, as well as in institutional

repositories from universities and international organizations. Keywords were combined using Boolean

operators (AND, OR), including: "illegal ﬁshing", "marine resource protection", "IUU", "Colombia", "maritime

control strategies", "maritime security", "ﬁshing regulations", "international experiences", “AIS”, “VMS”,

“artiﬁcial intelligence”, “decision-support systems”, “UAVs”, “data interoperability” and "lessons learned".

The 19-year time range was deﬁned to capture the evolution of policies and strategic approaches.

3.3. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria:

•

Studies addressing IUU ﬁshing that affects living marine resources, especially ﬁsh.

Research focused on Colombia or comparable geostrategic contexts.

Documents analyzing monitoring, control, and regulatory efforts.

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•

International experiences offering applicable insights to the Colombian context.

Exclusion criteria:

•

Studies focusing on non-living infrastructure or unrelated ecological impacts.

Literature with a purely foreign scope and no comparative elements.

Documents lacking operational strategy analysis or relevance to biodiversity.

Sources based on internal Navy reports without external validation.

Analytical variables

•

Type of control strategy (operational, technological, legal, cooperative).

Implementing institution or agency.

Estimated impact on IUU ﬁshing reduction.

Scalability and sustainability of the strategy.

Identiﬁed obstacles and required resources.

3.4. Final corpus

Out of an initial pool of 71 documents, 28 met all inclusion criteria, resulting in a robust, representative,

and critical dataset. This corpus served as the foundation for the comparative analysis between the measures

implemented by the Colombian Navy and those adopted in similar international contexts.

4. Discussion

4.1. Operational Impact of the Colombian Navy in the Fight Against Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU)

Fishing

Based on data provided by the Statistics Division of the Naval Operations Directorate of the Colombian

Navy, Figure 1 shows the annual volume of IUU ﬁshing seized between 2005 and 2024, expressed in kilograms.

In most years, seizures did not exceed 39 tons. However, there were notable spikes in 2006 and 2016, with

recorded volumes surpassing 60 and 90 tons, respectively.

Figure 1. Results of illegal ﬁshing seized per year (Period 2005 to 2024).

Note: The amount of illegal ﬁshing seized per year is quantiﬁed in kilograms according to the operational results of the

Colombian Navy Units between the years 2005 and 2024

Source: The authors.

The signiﬁcant increase observed in 2016 is directly associated with the seizure of 70 tons of illegally

caught yellowﬁn tuna from an industrial ﬁshing vessel. This event marked a turning point in the institutional

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perception of IUU ﬁshing in Colombia. It occurred as part of a joint operation between the Colombian Navy

and the National Authority of Aquaculture and Fisheries (AUNAP), which resulted in the immobilization of

the vessel Cabo de Hornos. The vessel was intercepted within 12 nautical miles of a zone where industrial

ﬁshing is strictly prohibited, in accordance with AUNAP Resolution 00899 issued on July 29, 2013. This area

belongs to the Utría National Natural Park, an environmentally sensitive protected zone.

Figure 2 displays the geographic distribution of total seizures recorded during the study period. The

jurisdiction of the Paciﬁc Naval Force accounts for over 50% of the total volume of IUU ﬁshing seized. This

ﬁnding highlights the high vulnerability of the Paciﬁc region to illegal ﬁshing activities and underscores the

need for differentiated monitoring and enforcement strategies.

Figure 2. Proportion of illegal ﬁshing seized by the Naval Force for the year 2016.

Note: The amount of illegal ﬁshing seized by the Naval Force in 2016 is quantiﬁed as a percentage.

Source: The authors.

Figure 3 presents a comparative analysis of the number of seizure events per region between 2005

and 2024. The data conﬁrm that the Paciﬁc region reports the highest incidence, with more than half of

all documented cases. Among the most commonly seized species are sharks whose illegal trade poses a

critical threat to marine ecosystems, and the parrotﬁsh, a keystone species essential to coral reef conservation,

particularly in the Seaﬂower Biosphere Reserve.

4.2. Strategies of the Colombian Navy

4.2.1. Technological Capabilities of the Colombian Navy in the Surveillance and Control of Illegal Fishing

The Colombian Navy has developed and strengthened its technological capabilities for the surveillance

and control of maritime and riverine spaces, integrating various units and systems that effectively contribute

to the detection and prevention of illegal activities, including Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU)

ﬁshing.

4.2.2. The Coast Guard Component

The Coast Guard Corps of the Colombian Navy is a key player in safeguarding national waters and

tackling illicit activities at sea. As evidenced by many of the cases evaluated in this study, coastal patrols, as

performed by this component, have been one of the most important operational characteristics to be used

effectively in raising awareness of IUU ﬁshing. Their ongoing presence in the areas of sea allows for constant

surveillance of ﬁshing activities, assisting in the conservation of marine resources and adherence to national

and international laws and regulations.

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Figure 3. Percentage of illegal ﬁshing seized from 2005 to 2024.

Note: All kilos of illegal ﬁsh seized by the Navy from 2005 to 2024 are referenced as a percentage.

Source: The authors.

Amongst its tasking, the Coast Guard Corps maintains and operates Trafﬁc Control and Surveillance

Stations (ECTVM), which have radars that are able to detect vessels out to between 12 and 24 nautical miles

(NM). These stations further coordinate with the Colombian Maritime Authority and (DIMAR), to keep

detailed records of vessels arriving into and departing coastal areas and assist in identifying irregular patterns

of navigation.

The sensors and radars used in these stations include:

•

TERMA SCANTER 5000 Series Radar: Designed for coastal and maritime surveillance, it provides

accurate detection in adverse conditions and can identify large vessels up to 24 NM and smaller crafts

within approximately 10 NM, depending on weather and sea conditions.

•

FURUNO 3000 Series Radar: These 250-watt solid-state radars enable continuous monitoring of vessels

operating within designated surveillance zones.

Kelvin Hughes SharpEye Radar: Used in coastal monitoring stations, this radar system enhances the

detection of small vessels and objects of interest in complex maritime environments.

In addition to these surveillance systems, the Coast Guard also has Rapid Reaction Units (URR), which

are vessels designed to make real-time interceptions of suspicious ships. The Rapid Reaction Units are marked

for maritime inspections and while also applying ﬁsheries policy, applying coordinated and swift response

is crucial for IUU-related incidents. The use of Rapid Reaction Units increases the state response capacity

but does not eliminate illegal ﬁshing, issues with IUU ﬁshing persist and require ongoing inter-institutional

coordination.

4.2.3. Offshore and Coastal Surface Units

The Colombian Navy also operates Surface Units with enhanced detection and surveillance capabilities

that signiﬁcantly bolster maritime control operations. These include:

•

Platforms equipped for helicopter landings during surveillance and enforcement missions.

Long-range 3D surveillance radars, enabling the detection and tracking of vessels over wide operational

areas.

•

Combat management systems for real-time processing and analysis of maritime data.

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Focusing on detection capabilities, these units also incorporate high-performance Unmanned Aerial

Vehicles (UAVs) for maritime surveillance operations:

•

V-BAT BLOCK-A M5.1-INT: This Vertical Take-Off and Landing (VTOL) drone is designed to be used

in reconnaissance and surveillance missions in strategic areas. The ability to operate in conﬁned spaces

makes it a very useful platform for deploying on naval assets. It features a ﬂight endurance of more

than eight hours and high deﬁnition electro-optic sensors, allowing it to identify and track suspicious

vessels even in low visibility conditions.

•

ScanEagle Block E: This UAV was developed for long-range surveillance operations. It has an autonomy

of more than 20 hours and high resolution multispectral camera systems to obtain high quality images of

targets. Its ability to ﬂy at higher altitudes, allows for analyzing navigation patterns and the presence of

vessels performing Illegal Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) ﬁshing within Colombian jurisdictional

waters.

The combination of these advanced technologies, along with coordinated operations between Coast

Guard Units and Surveillance Stations, enhances the Colombian Navy’s ability to detect and respond to IUU

ﬁshing activities, aiding in the preservation and sustainable management of the country’s oceanic resources.

4.2.4. Enforcement of National and International Regulations

The Colombian Navy aids in upholding laws and regulations that protect ﬁsheries resources. In

2021, Presidential Decree 1835 [26] which has measures for to manage, regulate and promote ﬁsheries and

aquaculture in Colombia. The decree emphasizes that the National Authority of Aquaculture and Fisheries

(AUNAP) has a vital role in sustainably managing these resources. Also in 2022, Law 2268 was passed with

targeted social beneﬁts for artisanal ﬁshers as recognition for their contribution to the national economy and

food security [6].

4.2.5. Use of Technology for Monitoring

Monitoring and control of IUU ﬁshing have been strengthened through the implementation of advanced

technologies. The Colombian Navy utilizes satellite surveillance systems, such as the Vessel Monitoring

System (VMS), which enables real-time tracking of ﬁshing ﬂeet activities and the detection of suspicious

movements in protected maritime zones [3].

4.2.6. Interinstitutional and International Coordination

The ﬁght against illegal ﬁshing requires effective collaboration among various national and international

entities. Within the framework of the Joint External Circular, a legal and administrative tool that outlines

coordinated action protocols, the Navy works interagency with the Ofﬁce of the Attorney General, the Special

Administrative Unit of Migration Colombia, the National Authority of Aquaculture and Fisheries (AUNAP),

and the National Natural Parks of Colombia to prosecute offenders and manage seized assets [23]. This

circular seeks to improve coordination in monitoring IUU ﬁshing and other illicit maritime activities.

To address cross-border challenges, the Colombian Navy also maintains cooperation with naval forces

from neighboring countries to counter transboundary IUU ﬁshing, thereby enhancing regional maritime

security [27]. At the international level, Colombia is a signatory to the FAO Port State Measures Agreement,

which facilitates cooperation with other states for the inspection and control of vessels suspected of engaging

in IUU ﬁshing [7].

In addition, the Colombian Navy actively participates in the multinational Operation Orion, an interna-

tional maritime campaign originally focused on combating narcotrafﬁcking. Since 2024, IUU ﬁshing has been

incorporated as one of the key illicit economies addressed by the campaign. As part of this integration, IUU

ﬁshing has also been included in the scope of the International Center for Research and Analysis Against

Maritime Drug Trafﬁcking (CIMCOM), thus contributing to a more comprehensive approach to combating

maritime criminal activities [5].

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4.2.7. Identiﬁed Limitations in Enforcement

Despite the efforts of the Colombian Navy in combating IUU ﬁshing, several challenges persist that

limit the effectiveness of existing strategies. One of the primary limitations relates to logistical and ﬁnancial

resources, which hinder the ability to maintain continuous surveillance across all national maritime zones

particularly in remote areas such as the Colombian Paciﬁc [3]. Furthermore, limited cooperation from certain

neighboring states complicates the interdiction of foreign vessels engaged in illegal ﬁshing in Colombian

waters that later seek refuge in other jurisdictions [27].

Judicial prosecution of offenders also remains a signiﬁcant challenge. The persistence of impunity and

the lack of exemplary sanctions undermine control and deterrence efforts. The aforementioned Joint External

Circular highlights institutional coordination gaps that constrain the national response capacity. As [16

]

points out, the implementation of integrated policies in countries like Ecuador—where improved interagency

collaboration has led to more efﬁcient enforcement processes—has helped reduce recidivism in IUU ﬁshing.

This suggests that a more robust institutional cooperation framework in Colombia could yield more effective

outcomes in the ﬁght against IUU ﬁshing.

4.3. Comparison with International Strategies

4.3.1. Implementation of International Fisheries Monitoring and Control Models: Applicability for the

Colombian Navy

Colombia has adopted strategies aligned with global efforts to combat Illegal, Unreported, and Unreg-

ulated (IUU) ﬁshing, particularly in line with principles outlined in international frameworks such as the

Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated Fishing Strategic Outlook of the United States Coast Guard [17]. These

strategies revolve around improved maritime control, international collaboration, and a more robust regula-

tory framework. The Colombian Navy has made tremendous progress in detecting and sanctioning illegal

acts in their jurisdictional waters – through maritime patrols, interdiction operations and interinstitutional

cooperation.

In the United States, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) assumes a role somewhat similar to that of

the Colombian Navy, primarily in monitoring and enforcing against illegal ﬁshing. The USCG has achieved

success in regard to illegal ﬁshing, understandably in great part due to how advanced their technologies

land-based, vessel-based and satellite-based have become for use in the monitoring and detection of vessels.

Colombia has some room to advance its use of satellite monitoring systems, reconnaissance drones and aerial

patrol missions in areas which are remote or difﬁcult to access. By launching into the use of technology,

Colombia could improve early detection of IUU ﬁshing vessels, enhance operational response to violations,

reduce total sailing hours for vessels used in policing or no longer rely solely on traditional patrols - adding

to overall efﬁciencies [17].

Additionally, partnerships with countries and international organizations that are already employing

these technologies will potentially provide access to the advanced surveillance systems that involve the ability

to share real-time information. Enhancing Colombia’s maritime control system would not only address the

issue of IUU ﬁshing, but also enhance maritime safety and ultimately conserve the ﬁsheries resources for the

future.

4.3.2. Use of Artiﬁcial Intelligence and Satellite Monitoring in the Fight Against IUU Fishing

Satellite monitoring and artiﬁcial intelligence (AI) has become key in the ﬁght against IUU ﬁshing.

The use of satellites and AI allows for proactive advance warning of illegal activities, allows us to better

utilize patrol resources, and allows for automated analysis of data and subsequent better management of

marine resources. Internationally, several countries (e.g. France—for the Commission for the Conservation

of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, CCAMLR; Nigeria; Ecuador; Panama, etc.) have initiated and

implemented platforms that incorporate satellite imagery, Automatic Identiﬁcation System (AIS), Vessel

Monitoring System (VMS), evidence and AI to better improve surveillance at sea.

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4.3.3. CCAMLR’s Experience in the Use of Satellite Imagery

An important example of satellite monitoring implementation is the initiative developed by the Com-

mission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). In 2014, France and the

CCAMLR Secretariat initiated a pilot project for the purpose of using new technology to enhance ﬁsheries

surveillance in the Convention area. The project amalgamated satellite imagery with the information derived

from the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) and the Automatic Identiﬁcation System (AIS) to improve upon

the function of identifying and tracking suspicious vessels in the Convention Area [14].

In the 2016 pilot, nearly 500 satellite images of approximately 10 million km² were evaluated. Of the

500 instances, 19 were identiﬁed as demonstrating early signs of illegal ﬁshing activity, where ﬁve vessels

had a very high probability of being engaged in IUU ﬁshing [21]. Due to the overall success of the program,

the program was extended in 2018, and with continuous technological improvement for the surveillance of

IUU ﬁshing. In 2019, the program had also investigated the ability of using GPS units ﬁtted to albatrosses,

to multiply the "reach" of the satellite surveillance in areas that are inaccessible (for the Conservation of

Antarctic Marine Living Resources [15;21].

CCAMLR’s experience shows that joint use of satellite technology with real-time monitoring systems

and/ or operations is an effective method for addressing illegal ﬁshing. These or similar types of models in

Colombia may strengthen national surveilling and enforcement abilities in national jurisdictional waters and

provide effective operational performance by the Colombian Navy or other entities responsible for marine

management or resource protection.

4.3.4. THEMIS Platform by CLS

THEMIS is a sophisticated web-platform developed by the French multinational company Collecte

Localisation Satellites (CLS) for ﬁsheries management and development. As a web-platform connected to

institutional databases, it allows efﬁcient processing and analysis of vast amounts of data. The interface can

utilize one or more map windows allowing vessel position tracking in real time along with spatial analysis.

Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) data (vessel positions, region of ﬁsheries, and catch reports) are entered

via a Graphical User Interface (GUI) web application (i.e., modiﬁcations of vessels positional data or deletion

of information stored at a database). THEMIS WEB: user the ability to track ﬁshing vessels in real-time,

visualize location trajectories, and model ﬁshing probabilities. Further, THEMIS WEB allows the combination

of other data sources to support and aid decisions in maritime monitoring [32].

4.3.5. THEMIS Platform in Panama

Panama has initiated the national version of the THEMIS platform developed by the Aquatic Resources

Authority of Panama (ARAP) and the Ministry of Environment. The satellite monitoring system aids

management and administration of the country’s aquatic resources, analyzing the enormous amounts of

data through artiﬁcial intelligence processing. The system automatically generates alerts to authorities

when suspicious ﬁshing activity is detected, thus signiﬁcantly enhancing maritime surveillance capacity in

Panamanian waters.

The deployment of THEMIS has streamlined patrol costings, speciﬁcally reducing patrol inspections

and maximizing enforcement on higher risk targets. The implementation of this program is a signiﬁcant step

forward in the continuing battle against illegal ﬁshing in the region [22].

4.3.6. SKYLIGHT Platform

The SKYLIGHT platform has been implemented in a number of ﬁsheries monitoring projects. This

system utilizes artiﬁcial intelligence and satellite monitoring to identify questionable vessels based on past

data and transportation analysis, which has allowed authorities to capture illicit values in the ﬁshing industry.

By using SKYLIGHT, in combination with the THEMIS system, Panama has increased detecting illegal ﬁshing

enforcement and is thereby increasing surveillance and control of marine resources [29].

Table 1 provides a comparative overview of the THEMIS and SKYLIGHT platforms, both used interna-

tionally to improve ﬁsheries oversight. In Panama, ARAP has adopted THEMIS for resource management,

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while SKYLIGHT is implemented in other international contexts as a complementary maritime surveillance

system.

Platform

Country/Institution Technology Used

Responsible

Beneﬁts

THEMIS

Panama’s

AI, Satellite

Monitoring, AIS,

VMS

Optimization of

patrols, automated

alerts

Authority of

Aquatic Resources

(ARAP)

SKYLIGHT

Various countries,

used by NGOs and

surveillance

AI, Historical Data

Analysis, Satellite

Monitoring

Identiﬁcation of

illegal ﬁshing

patterns,

agencies

integration with

other platforms

Table 1. Comparison between THEMIS and SKYLIGHT platforms.

4.3.7. Impact of These Technologies in Combating IUU Fishing

Satellite monitoring technologies have proven to be essential tools in combating Illegal, Unreported,

and Unregulated (IUU) ﬁshing, signiﬁcantly improving control and surveillance in protected areas. A clear

example of their impact is observed in the Galápagos Marine Reserve (GMR), where unauthorized vessel

incursions have markedly decreased over the past ﬁve years. While 28 irregular vessels were reported in

the 2017–2018 period, by 2022 this number had dropped to just ﬁve. This sharp reduction underscores the

effectiveness of satellite-based systems in detecting and deterring illicit ﬁshing activities [20 ;32].

These tools have also been broadly adopted by maritime enforcement authorities. According to recent

studies, 100% of surveyed ofﬁcers indicated familiarity with satellite monitoring technologies and conﬁrmed

their regular use in planning surveillance operations—demonstrating successful integration into modern

ﬁsheries management frameworks [12;32].

Another signiﬁcant beneﬁt is the optimization of operational resources. Unlike traditional patrol systems,

which require substantial investment in personnel and vessel maintenance, satellite-based platforms offer a

more sustainable and cost-effective alternative. Their implementation has reduced operational costs without

compromising detection capabilities, while also enabling real-time monitoring and automated analysis of

suspicious ﬁshing patterns [29;31].

The combined use of satellite monitoring and artiﬁcial intelligence has become a cornerstone in strength-

ening maritime enforcement capacity and incident response. As summarized in Table 2, international

strategies implemented by agencies such as the United States Coast Guard (USCG), the Commission for the

Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), and advanced platforms like THEMIS and

SKYLIGHT have signiﬁcantly enhanced the identiﬁcation of suspicious vessels and the efﬁcient allocation of

patrol resources.

A comparative analysis of these systems suggests that SKYLIGHT, with its real-time AI analytics and

pattern recognition capabilities, could be particularly suitable for Colombia’s Paciﬁc coast, where vast and

remote areas hinder conventional surveillance efforts. Additionally, THEMIS—already adapted to national

contexts such as Panama offers strong integration with existing Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS), making it

an ideal candidate for enhancing Colombia’s centralized maritime control infrastructure.

Integrating such technologies in Colombia would represent a critical advancement in the protection of

marine resources. By reducing pressure on conventional patrol assets and enabling early detection of IUU

ﬁshing, these systems can strengthen national prevention and enforcement strategies, while promoting the

long-term sustainability of the country’s maritime ecosystems.

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Strategy /

Platform

Description

International

Application

Potential for

Implementation in

Colombia

USCG’s IUU

Fishing

Strategy

Aligned with the "Illegal,

Unreported, and

Unregulated (IUU) Fishing

Strategic Outlook" of the U.S. operations.

Coast Guard. Strengthens

maritime control,

Implemented in the

U.S. with patrols and

interdiction

Colombia has adopted

patrols and interinstitutional

coordination but needs to

improve the use of advanced

technologies.

international cooperation,

and the regulatory

framework.

Satellite

Monitoring

and AI

Use of satellite imagery, AIS, Various countries

Colombia needs increased

investment in monitoring

systems and drones for

VMS systems with AI

algorithms to detect illegal

ﬁshing.

have implemented

advanced platforms

for maritime

Technologies

surveillance in remote areas.

surveillance.

CCAMLR

Experience

Integration of satellite

imagery with VMS and AIS

to identify suspicious vessels 500 satellite images,

in the Convention Area.

In 2016, France and

CCAMLR analyzed

Implementing similar

strategies could optimize

surveillance and control in

Colombian waters.

detecting 19 signs of

IUU ﬁshing and 5

suspicious vessels.

Used in various

countries to integrate

VMS, AIS data, and

catch reports.

THEMIS

Platform by

CLS

A web application for

Its integration in Colombia

could improve information

management and

decision-making in ﬁsheries

surveillance.

ﬁsheries management with

institutional databases and

real-time vessel mapping.

THEMIS

Platform in

Panama

Version developed by ARAP Issues automated

Implementation could

improve the detection of

suspicious patterns in

Colombian waters.

and the Ministry of

alerts to strengthen

maritime

Environment of Panama,

with AI to process data in

real time.

surveillance.

SKYLIGHT

Platform

AI-based system and

satellite monitoring to

identify suspicious vessels

by analyzing historical data

and movement patterns.

In Panama, its

combination with

THEMIS has

improved the

detection of illicit

activities.

Colombia could beneﬁt from

integrating SKYLIGHT with

its current systems to

strengthen surveillance.

Impact of

Satellite

Technologies

Enables effective control and In the Galápagos

Colombia could reduce

operational costs and

optimize patrols through

satellite systems.

reduces illegal incursions in

protected areas.

Marine Reserve,

illegal vessel

incursions decreased

from 28 in 2017-2018

to 5 in 2022.

Resource

Optimization

Reduces dependence on

traditional patrols and

lowers operational costs.

Successfully adopted

in several countries.

It would strengthen

operational intelligence and

planning for ﬁsheries

surveillance.

Table 2. Comparison of international strategies in the ﬁght against IUU ﬁshing.

4.4. Challenges and Opportunities to Strengthen the Strategy

4.4.1. Obstacles in Surveillance and Control

Surveillance and control of Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) ﬁshing face several critical

challenges. One of the main obstacles is the vast extension of Colombia’s maritime territory, which poses

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signiﬁcant difﬁculties for comprehensive monitoring. According to the United Nations Convention on the

Law of the Sea (UNCLOS, 1982), coastal states have rights and responsibilities over their Exclusive Economic

Zones (EEZ), which requires adequate supervision mechanisms. However, in practice, patrol capabilities are

limited, and the Colombian Navy must optimize the use of its available resources.

Moreover, underreporting and informality in the ﬁshing sector hinder the detection of illegal activities.

The Food and Agriculture Organization [7] highlights that in many countries, the lack of vessel and catch

records facilitates IUU ﬁshing by preventing effective oversight. This challenge is particularly pronounced

in artisanal ﬁsheries, which, due to their dispersed and informal nature, are often difﬁcult to regulate and

monitor.

In Colombia, artisanal ﬁshing is subject to various restrictions, such as seasonal bans on speciﬁc species,

area closures, gear limitations, and the mandatory use of exclusion devices. Additionally, certain practices

are explicitly banned, including the use of explosives (e.g., dynamite). These measures demonstrate that

IUU ﬁshing is not limited to industrial operations, but also encompasses artisanal activities, making the

enforcement of regulations more complex and urgent in remote coastal communities [3;25].

4.4.2. Lack of Investment in Technology

Combating IUU ﬁshing requires the deployment of advanced technologies for vessel detection and

tracking. However, the availability of satellite monitoring systems and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)

remains limited in many regions. The [7] notes that effective monitoring depends on tools such as the

Automatic Identiﬁcation System (AIS) and the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), whose coverage in Latin

America is still insufﬁcient. Without expanded technological infrastructure, maritime control agencies remain

reactive rather than preventive in addressing illicit ﬁshing operations.

4.5. Proposals to Optimize the Navy’s Response

4.5.1. Integration of New Technologies

The incorporation of artiﬁcial intelligence (AI), drones, and satellite monitoring can signiﬁcantly enhance

maritime surveillance capacity. According to the United States Coast Guard (USCG, 2020), advanced

technologies have improved the early detection of suspicious vessels and reduced response times to incidents.

While the Colombian Navy has made important strides in maritime interdiction operations, the expe-

riences of international bodies such as CCAMLR and the implementation of platforms like THEMIS and

SKYLIGHT in neighboring countries demonstrate the potential of satellite imagery, predictive algorithms,

and real-time data analysis to detect illegal ﬁshing vessels—without the need for immediate on-site presence.

Since 2024, Colombia’s CIMCOM (International Center for Research and Analysis Against Maritime

Drug Trafﬁcking) has facilitated the use of the SKYLIGHT platform in Trafﬁc Control and Maritime Surveil-

lance Stations (ECTVM) as a consultation tool for verifying the activity of ﬁshing vessels within their

respective jurisdictions. While ECTVM personnel have incorporated the platform into monitoring and

reporting workﬂows, operational limitations remain regarding decision-making protocols, communication

chains, and command strategies during events of interest. These gaps impact information ﬂow and reduce

the effectiveness and responsiveness of maritime enforcement operations.

The deployment of SKYLIGHT in Colombia represents a crucial milestone, as it improves suspicious

vessel identiﬁcation, optimizes resource usage, and enhances operational readiness. However, to guarantee

its utmost functionality, a formal national protocol should be adopted to identify the central authority for

managing the platform, set standard operation procedures, and deﬁne horizontal ﬂows of communication

across all operational units.

Increasing collaboration with international organizations that are already using these technologies

would also grant us access to strategic intelligence and would enable us to carry out more efﬁcient joint

operations. Modernizing Colombia’s maritime control system in conjunction with a regional cooperation

approach would not only strengthen the sovereignty and security of our maritime territory but would also

contribute signiﬁcantly to the sustainability of ﬁsheries resources to ﬁnd the right balance between economic

development and environmental conservation [13;25;33].

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4.5.2. Strengthening Legislation and Sanctions

The continuous issue of IUU ﬁshing in Colombian maritime territory has made authorities understand

the need for a coordinated and effective response. Currently, authorities are being faced with an increase

of vessels engaging in IUU ﬁshing and illegal ﬁshing activities, which poses a signiﬁcant threat to Earth’s

resources. The Joint External Circular [23] was signed with the intention to provide a framework for the

improvement of management and control for illegal ﬁshing in this context.

The fundamental objectives of this circular were stop and dissuade illegal ﬁshing, enhance both control

and surveillance protocols, and guarantee an efﬁcient chain of custody. It attempted to complement objectives

that were to support timely communications between the actors involved; and also to support the goal of

deterring and eliminating offences of related activities as well.

In addition, the Circular allows for a better comprehension of the procedures and functions of the role

of each authority that is part of the struggle against illegal ﬁshing. This is a coordinated working framework

and functions to be carried out by each of the authorities when identifying and reporting to the transgressors;

it deals with the coordination between the Colombian Navy, the national authority of aquaculture and ﬁshing,

and other agencies to be able to carry out timely and appropriate actions in cases of illegal ﬁshing. And let

´s

hope that with the Circular, we will be able to see the powers of each of the agencies in ﬁghting the illegal

ﬁshing.

In conclusion, the Joint External Circular is a very important part of improving ﬁsheries management in

Colombia. We hope it can assist in strengthening the ﬁght against illegal ﬁshing and thus contribute to the

conservation of the natural resources of the Colombian nation, and all of this will be possible as it addresses

the needs identiﬁed, established objectives and identiﬁed duties.

4.5.3. Strategies for Cooperation with Neighboring Countries and International Organizations

The ﬁght against IUU ﬁshing requires an integrated and coordinated international response. In this

regard, the Colombian Navy has strengthened its cooperation with multilateral organizations such as the

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Permanent Commission for the South Paciﬁc (CPPS), and

the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), to improve information exchange, harmonize

regulations, and carry out joint maritime surveillance and control operations [10;11].

A key example of this cooperation is the Colombian Navy’s participation in multinational exercises like

Operation Orion, a joint effort involving multiple nations to combat various transnational threats, including

drug trafﬁcking and IUU ﬁshing [28]. These operations have strengthened interoperability with naval forces

and security agencies of neighboring countries, optimizing detection, interdiction, and prosecution of illicit

activities in international waters and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) [24].

Additionally, Colombia has collaborated with the CPPS on projects aimed at protecting marine resources

and implementing the AMERP (Regional Monitoring and Enforcement Program), which has enhanced

its ability to control vessels suspected of engaging in illegal ﬁshing activities [12]. The strengthening of

these alliances is crucial for addressing the challenges of IUU ﬁshing, as many of these vessels operate in

cross-border zones and use tactics to evade detection. In this context, international cooperation not only

facilitates more effective operational responses but also contributes to the development of regional policies

and agreements that ensure greater protection of marine ecosystems [1].

The neighboring countries bordering Colombia’s maritime territory that play an essential role in regional

cooperation include Panama, Ecuador, and Venezuela. Strengthening relationships with these nations is

critical, as many IUU vessels operate in shared waters, further complicating detection and enforcement

efforts.

5. Conclusions

Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) ﬁshing remains a signiﬁcant threat to Colombia’s marine

biodiversity, ﬁsheries sustainability, and maritime governance. Although it may not present the same

immediate operational urgency as other maritime crimes such as drug trafﬁcking, it constitutes a persistent

challenge that requires sustained surveillance, monitoring, and control efforts by the Colombian Navy. This

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review shows that, between 2005 and 2024, the Navy has developed important operational capacities to

address IUU ﬁshing, but the effectiveness of these efforts depends increasingly on the strengthening of

technological capabilities and the integration of maritime monitoring systems.

The ﬁndings indicate that the Colombian Navy has a solid institutional and operational foundation

for maritime surveillance and interdiction. However, the main opportunity for improvement lies in the

enhancement of technological and information-based capabilities, particularly in the areas of real-time

monitoring, data interoperability, early detection, and decision support. In this regard, technologies such

as satellite monitoring, Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS), Automatic Identiﬁcation Systems (AIS), artiﬁcial

intelligence-based analytics, and digital surveillance platforms represent key enablers for improving the

detection of suspicious vessels and optimizing operational response.

The comparison with international models demonstrates that the integration of advanced maritime

surveillance technologies can signiﬁcantly improve control effectiveness. Experiences such as THEMIS and

SKYLIGHT illustrate the value of automated data analysis, anomaly detection, and information fusion for

supporting operational decision-making and increasing the precision of surveillance efforts. For Colombia,

the challenge is not only the adoption of these technologies, but also their effective articulation within a

coordinated institutional framework that allows timely information exchange and more strategic deployment

of enforcement resources.

A major gap identiﬁed in this study is the limited integration of technological systems with regulatory,

operational, and interinstitutional procedures. Although Colombia has a legal framework that supports

maritime interdiction, persistent coordination challenges, communication barriers, and the absence of more

specialized protocols for addressing IUU ﬁshing reduce the full potential of existing surveillance and control

capacities. Strengthening these elements would improve response times, support better-informed operational

decisions, and increase the efﬁciency of maritime enforcement.

Overall, this review suggests that the future effectiveness of the Colombian Navy’s response to IUU

ﬁshing will depend not only on operational presence and institutional commitment, but also on the consoli-

dation of an integrated technological architecture for maritime surveillance. Enhancing data interoperability,

expanding the use of intelligent monitoring tools, and incorporating decision-support systems based on

real-time information would make enforcement actions more targeted, efﬁcient, and sustainable. In this

sense, strengthening technological and operational integration is essential for improving ﬁsheries control,

protecting marine resources, and advancing Colombia’s maritime security objectives.

Future research should examine how emerging technologies such as UAVs, machine learning for

anomaly detection, and digital traceability systems, can improve the surveillance and control of IUU ﬁshing

in Colombia. It should also evaluate the interoperability of tools such as AIS, VMS, satellite imagery, and

intelligence platforms within integrated decision-support systems. Additional studies are needed on the

effects of real-time monitoring and interinstitutional coordination on operational response, as well as on

the role of regional cooperation and environmental change in shaping more adaptive maritime surveillance

strategies.

These research lines can support the development of more efﬁcient, integrated, and technology-driven

approaches to combating IUU ﬁshing and protecting marine resources.

Author Contributions: Umaña, A.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing – original

draft. Carranza, R.: Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. Calderón, A.:

Software, Visualization, Data curation, Writing – review & editing.

All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Refer to the taxonomía CRediT for term

explanations. Authorship should be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work reported.

Funding: This study did not receive external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable, since the present study does not involve human personnel or

animals.

Informed Consent Statement: This study is limited to the use of technological resources, so no human personnel or

animals are involved.

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Conﬂicts of Interest: Under the authorship of this research, it is declared that there is no conﬂict of interest with the

present research.

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Authors’ Biography

Andrés Umaña Reyes Frigate Lieutenant (Surface Specialty)

Rossny Carranza Torres Frigate Captain (Surface Specialty)

Astrid Calderón Hernández Master’s in Education: E-learning and Social Networks

Disclaimer/Editor’s Note: Statements, opinions, and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual

authors and contributors and not of the OnBoard Knowledge Journal and/or the editor(s), disclaiming any responsibility

for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions, or products referred to in the

content.