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Article

Design and Validation of an Instrument for Identifying

School Autonomy as a Dimension of Teacher Motivation

in Secondary Education: A Descriptive Cross-Sectional

Study

Diseño y validación de un instrumento para la

identiﬁcación de la autonomía escolar como dimensión de

la motivación docente en educación secundaria: estudio

descriptivo-transeccional

Diego Orlando Maldonado Marín¹, Carlos Alberto Severiche Sierra ²

Educational Sciences, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencia y Tecnología (UMECIT), Ciudad de Panamá, 0801, Panamá;

diegomaldonado.est@umecit.edu.pa

National Directorate of Research, Corporación Uniﬁcada Nacional de Educación Superior (CUN), Bogotá, 111711, Colombia;

carlos_severiche@cun.edu.co

Correspondence: carlos_severiche@cun.edu.co

∗

Citation: Maldonado, D., Severiche, C. Design and Validation of an Instrument for Identifying School Autonomy as a Dimension of

Teacher Motivation in Secondary Education. OnBoard Knowledge Journal 2026, 2, 1. https://doi.org/10.70554/OBJK2026.v02n01.01

Received: 21/10/2025, Accepted: 05/03/2026, Published: 24/03/2026

DOI: https://doi.org/10.70554/OBJK2026.v02n01.01

Abstract: Teacher motivation inﬂuences educational quality and teachers’ well-being. Among the institutional factors

associated with it, school autonomy occupies a relevant place. This study focused on identifying school autonomy

for the teaching motivation of secondary school teachers. It was a quantitative, descriptive, non-experimental, and

cross-sectional study in secondary education institutions. A self-administered questionnaire with Likert-type items was

administered, with content validity determined by expert judgment and construct validity through conﬁrmatory factor

analysis for ordinal data; reliability was estimated with omega and alpha coefﬁcients. The analysis included descriptive

statistics and classiﬁcation using predeﬁned scales for the school autonomy dimension. The aggregate pattern showed

"operational" autonomy, with concentrations in intermediate categories and low variability. Autonomy was sufﬁcient for

planning, adjusting methodologies, and taking responsibility for daily work, but more limited in larger-scale curricular

and organizational decisions. The homogeneity suggested shared institutional arrangements that standardize its scope.

The identiﬁed school autonomy was at medium and stable levels, compatible with sustained functioning but with room

for improvement to promote self-determined motivation.

Keywords: Personal autonomy; Motivation; Teachers; Secondary Schools

Resumen: La motivación docente inﬂuye en la calidad educativa y en el bienestar del profesorado. Entre los factores

institucionales asociados con ella, la autonomía escolar ocupa un lugar relevante. El trabajo se centró en Identiﬁcar la

OnBoard Knowledge Journal 2026, 2, 1.

https://revistasescuelanaval.com/obk/

Licensed by Escuela Naval de Cadetes "Almirante Padilla", COL.

This article is freely accessible and distributed under the terms and conditions

of Creative Commons Attribution (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

OnBoard Knowledge Journal 2026, 2, 1

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autonomía escolar para la motivación docente de los maestros de escuelas secundarias. Fue un estudio cuantitativo,

descriptivo, no experimental y transeccional en instituciones de educación secundaria. Se aplicó un cuestionario

autoadministrado con ítems Likert, con validez de contenido por juicio de expertos y validez de constructo mediante

análisis factorial conﬁrmatorio para datos ordinales; la conﬁabilidad se estimó con coeﬁcientes omega y alfa. El análisis

contempló estadística descriptiva y clasiﬁcación por baremos predeﬁnidos de la dimensión autonomía escolar. El patrón

agregado mostró autonomía “operativa”, con concentraciones en categorías intermedias y baja variabilidad. La autonomía

fue suﬁciente para planiﬁcar, ajustar metodologías y responder por el trabajo cotidiano, pero más acotada en decisiones

curriculares y organizacionales de mayor escala. La homogeneidad sugirió arreglos institucionales compartidos que

uniformizan su alcance. La autonomía escolar identiﬁcada se situó en niveles medios y estables, compatibles con

funcionamiento sostenido pero con margen de mejora para impulsar motivación autodeterminada.

Palabras clave: Autonomía personal; Motivación; Profesores; Escuelas Secundarias

1. Introdution

Teacher motivation is a cornerstone of educational quality, professional continuity, and teacher well-

being in secondary education. Evidence has shown that favorable motivational proﬁles are associated with

better classroom processes and more consistent student outcomes, while low levels of motivation coexist with

stress, burnout, and a greater intention to leave the profession [7;11;18;21]. In this context, understanding the

factors that fuel teacher motivation ceases to be a descriptive exercise and becomes a strategic necessity for

school systems.

One of the most inﬂuential contemporary explanations of motivation is Self-Determination Theory,

which postulates three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Their satisfaction

promotes more self-determined and intrinsic regulations [4;17]. In the case of teachers, autonomy is not

reduced to abstract freedom, but refers to the effective margin of decision to plan, teach, evaluate, and

participate in organizational agreements that provide pedagogical direction to the school. When perceived

autonomy is recognized and sustained in daily practice, motivation tends to consolidate at levels of higher

motivational quality, with positive effects on professional involvement and commitment [17 ;19].

Empirical literature has documented consistent relationships between greater perceived autonomy,

teacher self-efﬁcacy, and job satisfaction, as well as lower levels of stress [

support from school leaders has been linked to higher levels of autonomous motivation and lower burnout,

highlighting the role of pedagogical governance in teachers’ motivational architecture [ ]. At the micro level,

3;18]. Furthermore, autonomy

autonomy-supportive teaching practices have shown sustained motivational beneﬁts, suggesting a virtuous

cycle between supportive climates, realistic room for decision-making, and the quality of motivation [15].

From the Demand-Resources model, autonomy functions as an essential labor resource that cushions

the impact of demands and fosters the vigor and dedication inherent in teacher engagement [1]. However,

different school systems report asymmetries: there is usually more autonomy in the classroom than in larger

curricular or organizational decisions, which stabilizes daily functioning without necessarily propelling

professional agency toward shared institutional goals [3;18]. This pattern underscores the importance of

accurately identifying how perceived autonomy is conﬁgured in secondary school teaching.

For the identiﬁcation to be valid and useful, a clear operationalization of school autonomy as a dimension

of teacher motivation is essential, as well as the use of instruments with evidence of validity and reliability.

Recent research on scale development recommends explicit construction processes, expert review, and

structural veriﬁcation, including conﬁrmatory factor analysis with ordinal data and rigorous ﬁt criteria [

2;6;9].

In this sense, reliably measuring perceived autonomy allows not only to classify levels, but also to guide

improvement decisions in leadership, work organization, and professional development.

In response to these gaps, this study aimed to identify school autonomy for secondary school teachers’

teaching motivation, explicitly treating it as a dimension of the motivational construct. Based on the

perspectives of Self-Determination Theory and the Labor Demand-Resources model, it is assumed that

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perceived autonomy constitutes a key psychological and organizational resource for sustaining higher-quality

motivations, with direct implications for teacher well-being and performance [ 17]. Precisely identifying

;

its level and variability provides input for the design of policies and practices that expand the scope of

professional decision-making in the classroom and in school governance.

2. Contributions

The main contributions of this study are presented below:

ii.

A theoretical contribution is the explicit operationalization of school autonomy as a speciﬁc dimension

of teacher motivation, linking the construct to the frameworks of Self-Determination Theory and the

Job Demands–Resources model. This helps clarify that perceived autonomy should be understood not

only as an organizational condition, but also as a psychological and professional resource associated

with teacher well-being and motivational quality.

A methodological contribution is the development and validation of a context-sensitive instrument for

identifying school autonomy in secondary education teachers. The instrument was constructed through

a structured process that included expert judgment, content validity procedures, conﬁrmatory factor

analysis for ordinal data, and reliability estimation using omega and alpha coefﬁcients. This provides

a robust tool for future research aimed at assessing teacher motivation with greater conceptual and

psychometric precision.

ii.

An empirical contribution is the evidence showing that school autonomy is expressed at medium and

stable levels, with low variability across respondents. The ﬁndings indicate that teachers perceive

sufﬁcient autonomy for planning, adjusting methodologies, and assuming responsibility for daily

work, while participation in broader curricular and organizational decisions remains more limited.

This identiﬁes a pattern of operational autonomy that supports everyday teaching practice but also

reveals opportunities for improvement in school governance and teacher participation in institutional

decision-making.

3. Methodology

The study adopted a quantitative approach, descriptive in scope, with a non-experimental design and a

cross-sectional approach, speciﬁcally aimed at identifying the level of school autonomy as a dimension of

teacher motivation in secondary education teachers, in line with the Self-Determination Theory framework

on autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs [4;17]. This decision prioritized the point estimation and

interpretive classiﬁcation of school autonomy within the teacher motivation construct.

The empirical context consisted of secondary education institutions selected for accessibility and

organizational variability. The population consisted of active teachers with at least one year of institutional

tenure; the sampling was non-probabilistic and purposive, with proportional allocation by institution,

ensuring heterogeneity by area, type of afﬁliation, and seniority. The relevance of addressing perceived

autonomy as a key feature of teacher occupational well-being was supported by evidence linking it to

self-efﬁcacy and job satisfaction [18] and to school climates that reduce stress and promote effectiveness [3].

The variable analyzed was teacher motivation, operationalized in dimensions, with an emphasis on

school autonomy, understood as the teacher’s effective scope of decision-making regarding curriculum,

assessment, classroom organization, and daily professional practice. The items were written and contextual-

ized based on validated references of teacher autonomy and autonomy-supported teaching practices [15],

following scale development and construct-item traceability guidelines [2;9;20].

Measurement was conducted using a self-administered digital questionnaire with a ﬁve-point Likert

scale. Content validity was established through expert judgment using an item-dimension correspondence

matrix and calculation of the content validity index, following classic criteria and current recommendations

[

12;14]. Construct validity was veriﬁed using conﬁrmatory factor analysis for ordinal data, using polychoric

correlations and an appropriate estimator; substantial loadings and adequate overall ﬁt were required in

accordance with the methodological literature [6;10;16].

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The internal reliability of the autonomy subscale was estimated using Cronbach’s omega and alpha,

reporting conﬁdence intervals, in line with the recent consensus favoring the use of omega over alpha for

scales with ordinal items and potential tau-equivalence violations [8;13]. The procedure included institu-

tional authorization, a formal call, informed consent, asynchronous administration without the presence of

managers, data storage in an encrypted repository, and an incident log.

The analytical plan focused, see Table 1, on calculating the score for the "school autonomy" dimension

and classifying it according to predeﬁned scales to identify levels of perceived autonomy. Additionally,

subgroup contrasts (type of afﬁliation, seniority, and school size) were described to contextualize the identiﬁ-

cation achieved, without introducing causal inferences beyond the study’s objective [2].

Table 1. Interpretive scale for the School Autonomy dimension

Average range

Interpretation

1.00–1.80

1.81–2.60

2.61–3.40

3.41–4.20

4.21–5.00

Very low perceived autonomy

Low perceived autonomy

Average autonomy

High perceived autonomy

Very high perceived autonomy

Source: The authors.

4. Results and Discussion

First, and before the statistics, the percentage behavior of the group is described. Table 2 shows that in

decision-making, 53.0% are recorded as Sometimes, 44.7% as Almost Always, and 2.3% as Always; in labor

freedom, 52.3%, 45.0%, and 2.7%, respectively; and in responsibility, 52.7%, 45.3%, and 2.0%. No responses

are observed in Never or Almost Never. The pattern, practically identical across all three indicators, suggests

a present but contained autonomy: it frequently appears in daily practice, although without consolidating at

clearly high levels.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of school autonomy

DECISION MAKING LABOR FREEDOM

RESPONSIBILITY

Alternatives

(1) Never (N)

(2) Almost Never (CN)

(3) Sometimes (AV)

(4) Almost Always (CS) 134

(5) Always (S)

Total

159

0.0

53.0

44.7

2.3

157

135

0.0

52.3

45.0

2.7

158

136

0.0

52.7

45.3

2.0

300

100

300

100

300

100

x¯ of the indicator

Indicator category

σ of the indicator

Dispersion

3.493

AVERAGE

0.546

3.503

AVERAGE

0.552

3.493

AVERAGE

0.539

Very low dispersion

15.62%

Very low dispersion

15.75%

Very low dispersion

15.44%

CV of the indicator

x¯ of the dimension

Dimension category

σ of the dimension

Dispersion

3.50

AVERAGE

0.156

Very low dispersion

4.46%

CV of the dimension

Source: The authors.

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The emphasis on Sometimes and Almost Always indicates that teachers have scope to organize their

work and assume responsibilities, but they participate less in larger-scale decisions (curricular or organiza-

tional), which are the ones that typically push responses toward Always. This moderate ceiling is relevant

because, while it supports ordinary pedagogical functioning, it can limit teacher agency in institutional

improvement processes.

The central pattern is located in the middle of the scale, with very low variability between individuals.

We observed M = 3.503;

= 0.552; CV = 15.75% for work freedom; M = 3.493;

= 0.539; CV = 15.44% for

responsibility; and M = 3.493;

= 0.546; CV = 15.62% for decision-making. The proximity of the means

and the stability of the CVs (≈15%) reveal consensus: there is functional autonomy for daily tasks; the

decision-making space exists, but is limited and homogeneously perceived.

The empirical pattern reveals an "operational" school autonomy: teachers most frequently reported

intermediate levels of decision-making, professional freedom, and responsibility, with very low variability

between individuals. This convergence suggests sufﬁcient decision-making margins for planning, adjusting

methodologies, and responding to daily results, but less inﬂuence on larger-scale curricular or organizational

decisions, which tends to stabilize motivation without reducing it to optimal levels. According to Self-

Determination Theory, the satisfaction of the need for autonomy drives more self-determined and intrinsic

regulations; when perceived autonomy is moderate, performance can be maintained, but motivational energy

and sense of purpose rarely reach their ceiling [17].

In the teaching literature, perceived autonomy is consistently associated with greater self-efﬁcacy and

job satisfaction, and lower stress, such that average proﬁles such as those observed tend to correspond

to reasonable, though not exceptional, well-being [3;18;21]. The ﬁnding of low dispersion reinforces the

hypothesis that there are shared institutional norms and routines that standardize the scope of autonomy;

under this type of climate, improvement depends less on individual variations and more on organizational

arrangements that open up collegial decision-making spaces.

From the Demand-Resources model, autonomy functions as a key resource that cushions burnout and

fosters engagement; intermediate levels partially protect against burnout but hardly trigger the vigor and

sustained dedication that characterize teacher engagement [1;18]. In this framework, "classroom autonomy"

can sustain daily operations, while limited participation in school decisions restricts professional agency and

identiﬁcation with institutional goals, a pattern consistent with evidence that support for autonomy by the

organization and leadership predicts better trajectories of well-being [3].

In practical terms, the data support strategies that transcend technical autonomy and integrate mecha-

nisms of co-responsibility: collaborative planning with veriﬁable outputs, teacher participation in assessment

criteria and curricular adjustments, and pedagogical leadership that models autonomy-supporting practices

in teaching work [15]. Such interventions not only satisfy the need for autonomy but also activate com-

plementary motivational and psychosocial resources competence and relatedness, that enhance the effect

[17;19].

Finally, it is pertinent to emphasize that the cross-sectional design and the use of self-report limit causal

inferences; however, the convergence between the observed pattern of "medium and stable autonomy" and

the literature suggests a concrete opportunity: moving autonomy from the functional to the strategic through

organizational arrangements that make teacher participation a cornerstone of school governance.

5. Conclusions

It is concluded that school autonomy, understood as the effective scope for curricular, pedagogical, eval-

uative, and managerial decision-making, is consistently associated with higher levels of teacher motivation

in secondary education. Evidence suggests that classroom-oriented autonomy enhances self-efﬁcacy, a sense

of purpose, and affective commitment, while institutional autonomy contributes to removing bureaucratic

barriers and enabling sustainable collaborative practices. These effects are strengthened when distributed

pedagogical leadership, a supportive organizational climate, and professional development mechanisms

co-designed with teachers are present. Overall, autonomy does not operate as an end in itself, but rather

as a framework that allows teachers to exercise informed professional judgment and adapt teaching to the

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real needs of students. However, tensions derived from administrative burdens, punitive accountability,

and insufﬁcient resources are identiﬁed, which erode the motivational potential of autonomy and introduce

asymmetries between schools. Among the practical implications are prioritizing clear decision-making

margins in curriculum and assessment, simplifying procedures, ensuring protected time for collaborative

planning, and aligning incentives with pedagogical improvement. Limitations include the non-experimental

design and self-reporting that may limit causal inference and generalization. Future work should incorporate

longitudinal follow-ups, quasi-experimental approaches, multilevel analysis, and independent performance

metrics, as well as comparisons between urban and rural contexts. In short, school autonomy is an enabling,

though not sufﬁcient, condition for high and sustainable teacher motivation, with equity, coherence, and

solid institutional support.

Author Contributions: Diego Maldonado: Conceptualization, Research design, Instrument development, Data

collection, Statistical analysis, Writing – original draft preparation. Carlos Alberto Severiche Sierra: Bibliographic review,

Interpretation of results, Methodological supervision, Writing – review & editing.

All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Refer to the taxonomía CRediT for term

explanations. Authorship should be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work reported.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable, since the present study does not involvehuman personnel or

animals.

Informed Consent Statement: This study is limited to the use of technological resources, so nohuman personnel or

animals are involved.

Acknowledgments: The authors express their gratitude to the participating teachers that contributed to the development

of this research. Their collaboration made it possible to collect the information necessary for the analysis and validation

of the instrument.

Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂicts of interest.

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Authors’ Biography

Diego Orlando Maldonado Marín Is an educator, researcher, and doctoral candidate in Educa-

tional Sciences with an emphasis on research, evaluation, and educational project formulation

at the Universidad Metropolitana de Educación, Ciencia y Tecnología (UMECIT), Panama. He

holds a Master’s degree in Educational Innovation from the Pontiﬁcia Universidad Católica

del Ecuador and a Bachelor’s degree in Education with a specialization in Plurilingual Educa-

tion from the Universidad Central del Ecuador. His research focuses on teacher motivation,

burnout syndrome, teacher well-being, and organizational factors inﬂuencing educational

quality in secondary education. His work integrates perspectives from educational psychology,

organizational studies, and educational management to analyze the impact of professional

exhaustion on teaching performance and institutional dynamics. He has experience in cur-

riculum development, educational innovation, and the design and psychometric validation of

research instruments applied to educational contexts. His scientiﬁc work contributes to the

understanding of teacher burnout and motivational processes in Latin American educational

systems, promoting evidence-based strategies that support teacher well-being and sustainable

educational improvement.

Carlos Alberto Severiche Sierra Holds a Postdoctoral degree in Hermeneutics and Scientiﬁc

Interpretation and a PhD in Sciences (Management). He also holds a Master’s degree in

Sustainable Development and Environment, as well as postgraduate specializations in Sanitary

and Environmental Engineering and Occupational Health and Safety, and a degree in Chemistry.

He is classiﬁed as a Senior Researcher by MinCiencias (Colombia) and has accumulated

approximately 2,500 citations in Google Scholar. He serves as a peer reviewer of research

projects for the Colombian Observatory of Science and Technology (OCYT) and the Colombian

Association for the Advancement of Science (ACAC), and is the Editor-in-Chief of the scientiﬁc

journal Caribbean Journal of Management Systems. He has more than 14 years of experience in

the productive sector and in undergraduate and postgraduate teaching, both in face-to-face and

distance education modalities. He also serves as an academic peer reviewer for the veriﬁcation

of quality conditions for academic program accreditation for the Ministry of Education. He is

certiﬁed as a Six Sigma Green Belt by the Six Sigma Institute and the University of Celaya.

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